{"id":54796,"date":"2020-09-08T14:29:41","date_gmt":"2020-09-08T19:29:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/content.findlaw-admin.com\/ability-legal\/supreme\/supreme-court-insights\/the-separation-of-church-and-state-everson-v-board-of-educatio.html"},"modified":"2020-09-08T14:29:41","modified_gmt":"2020-09-08T19:29:41","slug":"the-separation-of-church-and-state-everson-v-board-of-educatio","status":"publish","type":"supreme","link":"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/supreme-court-insights\/the-separation-of-church-and-state-everson-v-board-of-educatio.html","title":{"rendered":"The Separation of Church and State: Everson v. Board of Education"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<div class=\"wp-container-core-columns-is-layout-9d6595d7  fl-block-columns fl-sectionWithSidebar fl-container fl-flex fl-flex-wrap fl-gap30\">\n    \n    <div class=\"fl-page-articles   fl-block-column fl-section-main fl-section-main-full-width\">\n        <h1 class=\"fl-no-margin-top\">The Separation of Church and State: Everson v. Board of Education<\/h1>\n<section class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline\">\n    <div class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-content\">\n                    By <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team\/laura-temme-esq\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Laura Temme, Esq.<\/a> | Legally reviewed by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team\/ally-marshall-esq\/\" rel=\"noopener\">Ally Marshall, Esq.<\/a>\n                | Last reviewed\n        <time>\n                            September 08, 2020\n                    <\/time>\n    <\/div>\n\n    \n    <details class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle fl-gutenberg-byline-legally-reviewed\">\n        <summary>\n            <i class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n            Legally Reviewed\n        <\/summary>\n\n        <div class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle-content\">\n            <p><em>This article has been written and reviewed for legal accuracy, clarity, and style by <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team.html\" rel=\"noopener\">FindLaw\u2019s team of legal writers and attorneys<\/a> and in accordance with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/company-history\/editorial-policy.html\" rel=\"noopener\">our editorial standards<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\n    <\/details>\n\n    <details class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle fl-gutenberg-byline-fast-checked\">\n        <summary>\n            <i class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-icon\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n            Fact-Checked\n        <\/summary>\n\n        <div class=\"fl-gutenberg-byline-toggle-content\">\n            <p><em>The last updated date refers to the last time this article was reviewed by FindLaw or one of our <a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/company\/our-team\/contributing-authors.html\" rel=\"noopener\">contributing authors<\/a>. We make every effort to keep our articles updated. For information regarding a specific legal issue affecting you, please <a href=\"https:\/\/lawyers.findlaw.com\/?fli=bylinelink\" rel=\"noopener\">contact an attorney in your area<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\n    <\/details>\n<\/section>\n    <div class=\"fl-callout-text article-blockquote\">\n        <p>In&nbsp;<i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i>, a closely divided Supreme Court decided a New Jersey program that helped children in Catholic schools did not violate the First Amendment.<\/p>\n\n    <\/div>\n\n<div>The Constitution&#8217;s First Amendment contains, among other things, one of the most prolific founding principles of the Bill of Rights &#8211; the freedom of religion. In 1947, the Supreme Court was asked to decide just how separate our federal government needed to be from religious institutions in <i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i>.<\/div>\r\n<p>Use these links to skip to different sections:<\/p>\r\n<ul>\r\n<li><a href=\"#summary\"><i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i> Case Summary,<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#decision\">The Court&#8217;s Decision in <i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i><\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#separation\">Separation of Church and State<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#establishment\">The Establishment Clause vs. The Free Exercise Clause<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#dissents\">Dissenting Opinions in E<i>verson v. Board of Education<\/i><\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#related\">Related Cases<\/a><\/li>\r\n<li><a href=\"#freedom\">Religious Freedom Today<\/a><\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"summary\">Background and Procedural History<\/h2>\r\n<p>In the 1940s, a New Jersey law allowed local school districts to make their own rules and contracts on transporting children to and from school. Under this law, the Board of Education of Ewing Township started reimbursing parents for the cost of sending their kids to school on public busses. This included bussing to private schools, 96% of which were Catholic parochial schools. Arch Everson filed a lawsuit as a taxpayer in Ewing Township, arguing that reimbursing parents who sent their children to religious schools violated the First Amendment.<\/p>\r\n<p>A New Jersey trial court found the statute was unconstitutional but on appeal the New Jersey Supreme Court upheld it. In 1947,\u00a0<i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i>\u00a0reached the United States Supreme Court.<\/p>\r\n<p>Relying on the plain text of the First Amendment, the Supreme Court found that although the United States government cannot promote religion, it also cannot be religion&#8217;s adversary.<\/p>\r\n<h2 id=\"decision\">The Court&#8217;s Decision in\u00a0<i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i><\/h2>\r\n<p>In a narrow 5-4 decision, the majority held that the New Jersey law did not violate the Constitution&#8217;s establishment clause because it did not directly support Catholic schools. Instead, it assisted parents of all religions with getting their kids to school. The court also held that state and local governments are prohibited from the establishment of religion in the same way as the federal government.<\/p>\r\n<p>The majority opinion was written by Justice Hugo Black. He acknowledged that &#8220;no tax in any amount, large or small, can be levied to support any religious activities or institutions, whatever they may be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or practice religion.&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>However, he reasoned that because reimbursements were offered to all students, regardless of religion, it was constitutionally permissible. Furthermore, government funds were given to parents, not the schools themselves.<\/p>\r\n<h2 id=\"separation\">Separation of Church and State<\/h2>\r\n<p>In\u00a0<i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i>, the Supreme Court discussed the &#8220;wall of separation&#8221; that should be present between the government and religious institutions. This metaphor led to the commonly-used phrase &#8220;separation of Church and State.&#8221; The justices agreed that the United States government must be cautious regarding religious freedoms under the First Amendment. In doing so, it must walk the line between allowing the free practice of religion while also not promoting one religion over others:<\/p>\r\n<p>&#8220;The &#8216;establishment of religion&#8217; clause of the First Amendment means at least this: Neither a state nor the Federal Government can set up a church. Neither can pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions or prefer one religion over another. Neither can force nor influence a person to go to or to remain away from church against his will or force him to profess a belief or disbelief in religion&#8230;&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>Even Justice Black, who wrote for the five justices who did not view the New Jersey law as unconstitutional, said that \u201c[t]he First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach.&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>However, as this case shows, balancing this separation with the Constitution&#8217;s free exercise clause is not always easy.<\/p>\r\n<h2 id=\"establishment\">The Establishment Clause vs. The Free Exercise Clause<\/h2>\r\n<p>While the government cannot promote religion, it also cannot punish someone because of their faith. Suppose someone is denied a government benefit due to their wish to send their child to a religious school. In that case, they may have a constitutional case as well.<\/p>\r\n<p>This delicate balance is required by two essential components of the First Amendment, known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment1\/annotation02.html#1\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">establishment clause<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\/amendment1\/annotation05.html#1\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">free exercise clause<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<p>For being so important, these clauses do not include a lot of detail. First, the establishment clause:<\/p>\r\n<p>&#8220;Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion&#8230;&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>Then, the free exercise clause:<\/p>\r\n<p>&#8220;&#8230;or prohibiting the free exercise thereof.&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>That&#8217;s all the drafters of the First Amendment gave us. So while this broad freedom provides protection from religious persecution, there&#8217;s also a lot of room for interpretation. In the years that followed the passage of the amendment, the rules were expanded by courts &#8211; primarily the Supreme Court.<\/p>\r\n<h2 id=\"dissents\">Dissenting Opinions in\u00a0<i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i><\/h2>\r\n<p>Justices Robert H. Jackson, Harold Hitz Burton, Felix Frankfurter, and Wiley Rutledge disagreed. Justices Rutledge and Jackson wrote separate opinions to outline their dissent.<\/p>\r\n<p>Justice Rutledge reasoned that because the funds used to reimburse parents were obtained through taxes, they could not be given to parents who sent their children to religious schools. He insisted that the First Amendment forbids &#8220;every form of public aid or support for religion.&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>&#8220;It is of no importance in this situation whether the beneficiary of this expenditure of tax-raised funds is primarily the parochial school and incidentally the pupil, or whether the aid is directly bestowed on the pupil with indirect benefits to the school. The state cannot maintain a Church and it can no more tax its citizens to furnish free carriage to those who attend a Church.&#8221;<\/p>\r\n<p>Justice Jackson pointed out that the program at issue in\u00a0<i>Everson\u00a0<\/i>reimbursed parents who sent their kids to public school or parochial school, but attendees of for-profit private schools did not qualify. In fact, parents were only reimbursed for transportation to public schools or Catholic schools. Children attending a Baptist or Jewish school, or even a secular private school did not get the same benefits. Therefore, according to Justice Jackson, the practice ran contrary to the First Amendment by favoring one religious denomination over another.<\/p>\r\n<h2 id=\"related\">Related Cases<\/h2>\r\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/333\/203.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">McCullum v. Board of Education<\/a>\u00a0&#8211;\u00a0<\/i>One year after deciding\u00a0<i>Everson v. Board of Education<\/i>, the Supreme Court addressed the First Amendment&#8217;s separation of church and state once again in\u00a0<i>McCollum<\/i>. Justice Black and the majority found that the practice of releasing students from school early to attend religious services in a public school building violated the Constitution.<\/p>\r\n<p><i><a href=\"https:\/\/nmonesource.com\/nmos\/nmsc\/en\/item\/381539\/index.do?q=zellers+v.+huff\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Zellers v. Huff<\/a>\u00a0<\/i>&#8211; Also known as the Dixon School Case, this lawsuit challenged the employment of nuns, religious brothers, and priests as teachers in publicly funded schools. It reached the New Mexico Supreme Court in 1951. The justices decided that having teachers who &#8220;by their striking and distinctive ecclesiastical robes&#8221; were clearly connected to the Catholic church was inappropriate in a publicly funded school.<\/p>\r\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/legalblogs\/supreme_court\/2020\/06\/supreme-court-montana-scholarship-program-cant-exclude-religious-schools.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\"><i>Espinoza v. Montana Dept. of Revenue<\/i><\/a>\u00a0&#8211; In 2020, the Supreme Court upheld a Montana law that provided tax credits to people who donated to organizations that provided students with private school scholarships. Although most funds went to religious schools, the Supreme Court found the program did not promote or favor religion.<\/p>\r\n<h2 id=\"freedom\">Religious Freedom Today<\/h2>\r\n<p>In the years that followed\u00a0<i>Everson v. Board of Education,\u00a0<\/i>the Supreme Court continued to hear cases concerning government involvement in parochial schools.<\/p>\r\n<p>The Supreme Court under Chief Justice John Roberts has generally leaned in favor of religious institutions when it comes to First Amendment cases. In 2012, the court created the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/10-553.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">&#8220;ministerial exemption, &#8220;<\/a>\u00a0which means the First Amendment prevents religious institutions from having to follow\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/codes.findlaw.com\/us\/title-42-the-public-health-and-welfare\/42-usc-sect-2000e-2.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">federal employment discrimination laws<\/a>.<\/p>\r\n<p>Initially, the ministerial exemption only meant that federal discrimination laws didn&#8217;t apply in the hiring and firing of ministers. However, in 2020 the rule was expanded to include Catholic school teachers. The Supreme Court decided that\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/legalblogs\/supreme_court\/2020\/07\/supreme-court-continues-trend-of-siding-with-religious-institutions-in-first-amendment-cases.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">even teachers who teach secular subjects<\/a>\u00a0were close enough to the mission of a religious school that the government should not get involved in decisions regarding their employment.<\/p>\r\n<p>Visit FindLaw&#8217;s Cases &amp; Codes to read the Supreme Court&#8217;s full opinion in\u00a0<i><a href=\"https:\/\/caselaw.findlaw.com\/court\/us-supreme-court\/330\/1.html\" target=\"_self\" rel=\"noopener\">Everson v. Board of Education.<\/a><\/i><\/p>\r\n<div class=\"was-this-helpful\">\n    <div\n            class=\"was-this-helpful__question-container\"\n            aria-labelledby=\"was-this-helpful__question\"\n            role=\"group\"\n    >\n        <span\n                id=\"was-this-helpful__question\"\n                class=\"was-this-helpful__question fl-text-lg-bold\"\n        >Was this helpful?<\/span>\n        <button\n                class=\"was-this-helpful__button fl-text-sm\"\n                aria-label=\"Yes\"\n                value=\"yes\"\n        >\n            <span class=\"was-this-helpful__button-text fl-text-bold\">Yes<\/span>\n            <i class=\"was-this-helpful__button-icon\">\n                <svg width=\"22\" height=\"22\" viewBox=\"0 0 22 22\" fill=\"none\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n                    <g id=\"thumbs-up\" clip-path=\"url(#clip0_604_3418)\">\n                        <path id=\"Vector\"\n                              d=\"M6 21H3C2.46957 21 1.96086 20.7893 1.58579 20.4142C1.21071 20.0391 1 19.5304 1 19V12C1 11.4696 1.21071 10.9609 1.58579 10.5858C1.96086 10.2107 2.46957 10 3 10H6M13 8V4C13 3.20435 12.6839 2.44129 12.1213 1.87868C11.5587 1.31607 10.7956 1 10 1L6 10V21H17.28C17.7623 21.0055 18.2304 20.8364 18.5979 20.524C18.9654 20.2116 19.2077 19.7769 19.28 19.3L20.66 10.3C20.7035 10.0134 20.6842 9.72068 20.6033 9.44225C20.5225 9.16382 20.3821 8.90629 20.1919 8.68751C20.0016 8.46873 19.7661 8.29393 19.5016 8.17522C19.2371 8.0565 18.9499 7.99672 18.66 8H13Z\"\n                              stroke=\"#666666\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\"\n                              stroke-linejoin=\"round\"><\/path>\n                    <\/g>\n                    <defs>\n                        <clipPath id=\"clip0_604_3418\">\n                            <rect width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"white\"><\/rect>\n                        <\/clipPath>\n                    <\/defs>\n                <\/svg>\n            <\/i>\n        <\/button>\n        <button\n                class=\"was-this-helpful__button fl-text-sm\"\n                aria-label=\"No\"\n                value=\"no\"\n        >\n            <span class=\"was-this-helpful__button-text fl-text-bold\">No<\/span>\n            <i class=\"was-this-helpful__button-icon\">\n                <svg width=\"22\" height=\"22\" viewBox=\"0 0 22 22\" fill=\"none\" xmlns=\"http:\/\/www.w3.org\/2000\/svg\">\n                    <g id=\"thumbs-down\" clip-path=\"url(#clip0_604_3423)\">\n                        <path id=\"Vector\"\n                              d=\"M16 0.999995H18.67C19.236 0.989986 19.7859 1.18813 20.2154 1.55681C20.645 1.9255 20.9242 2.43905 21 3V10C20.9242 10.5609 20.645 11.0745 20.2154 11.4432C19.7859 11.8119 19.236 12.01 18.67 12H16M9.00003 14V18C9.00003 18.7956 9.3161 19.5587 9.87871 20.1213C10.4413 20.6839 11.2044 21 12 21L16 12V0.999995H4.72003C4.2377 0.994543 3.76965 1.16359 3.40212 1.47599C3.0346 1.78839 2.79235 2.22309 2.72003 2.7L1.34003 11.7C1.29652 11.9866 1.31586 12.2793 1.39669 12.5577C1.47753 12.8362 1.61793 13.0937 1.80817 13.3125C1.99842 13.5313 2.23395 13.7061 2.49846 13.8248C2.76297 13.9435 3.05012 14.0033 3.34003 14H9.00003Z\"\n                              stroke=\"#666666\" stroke-width=\"2\" stroke-linecap=\"round\" stroke-linejoin=\"round\"\/>\n                    <\/g>\n                    <defs>\n                        <clipPath id=\"clip0_604_3423\">\n                            <rect width=\"22\" height=\"22\" fill=\"white\"\/>\n                        <\/clipPath>\n                    <\/defs>\n                <\/svg>\n            <\/i>\n        <\/button>\n    <\/div>\n    <span class=\"was-this-helpful__taken-action fl-text-sm-bold\"><\/span>\n    <div class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-container\">\n        <div class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message\" role=\"status\">\n            <p class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message-text\"><\/p>\n        <\/div>\n        <form class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-form\">\n            <div class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback was-this-helpful__feedback--positive\">\n                <fieldset>\n                    <legend class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Why was this helpful?<\/legend>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--understandable\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"positive-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Easy to understand\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--understandable\"\n                        >Easy to understand<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--solved-problem\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"positive-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Solved my problem\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--solved-problem\"\n                        >Solved my problem<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--other\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"positive-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Other\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--other\"\n                        >Other<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/fieldset>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback was-this-helpful__feedback--negative\">\n                <fieldset>\n                    <legend class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\" tabindex=\"0\">Why was this not helpful?<\/legend>\n                    <div class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message\" role=\"status\">\n                        <p class=\"was-this-helpful__choose-option-message-text\"><\/p>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--missing-info\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Missing Information\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--missing-info\"\n                        >Missing the information I need<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--complicated\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Too complicated\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--complicated\"\n                        >Too complicated \/ too many steps<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--dated\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Out of date\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--dated\"\n                        >Out of date<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                    <div class=\"fl-radio-button-field fl-flex was-this-helpful__feedback-form-title\">\n                        <input\n                                id=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--negative-other\"\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-input\"\n                                type=\"radio\"\n                                name=\"negative-feedback\"\n                                value=\"Other\"\n                        >\n                        <label\n                                class=\"fl-radio-button-field-label fl-text-sm was-this-helpful__radio-label\"\n                                for=\"was-this-helpful__radio-button--negative-other\"\n                        >Other<\/label>\n                    <\/div>\n                <\/fieldset>\n            <\/div>\n            <div class=\"was-this-helpful__form-buttons-container\">\n                <button\n                    class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-button was-this-helpful__feedback-button--positive at-feedback-submit fl-button secondary\"\n                    type=\"submit\"\n                >\n                    <span class=\"fl-button-content\">Submit<\/span>\n                    <i\n                        class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\"\n                        aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                    ><\/i>\n                <\/button>\n                <button\n                    class=\"was-this-helpful__feedback-button was-this-helpful__feedback-button--cancel fl-button primary disabled\"\n                    type=\"reset\"\n                >\n                    <span class=\"fl-button-content\">Cancel<\/span>\n                    <i\n                        class=\"fa fa-times-circle medium\"\n                        aria-hidden=\"true\"\n                    ><\/i>\n                <\/button>\n            <\/div>\n        <\/form>\n    <\/div>\n    <div class=\"was-this-helpful__thank-you-message\" role=\"status\">\n        <i class=\"was-this-helpful__thank-you-message-icon fa fa-check\"><\/i>\n        <p class=\"was-this-helpful__thank-you-message-text\" aria-live=\"polite\"><\/p>\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n\n\n    <\/div>\n    \n    <div class=\"fl-block-column fl-section-sidebar\">\n        \n                        \n\n<div class=\"generalCardContainer\">\n            \n<div\n    class=\"fl-image-card fl-image-card--no-max-width fl-image-card--no-min-height fl-card-with-children fl-latl-card fl-image-card-title-on-image fl-flex fl-flex-column\"\n>\n                    <a class=\"\" href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\">\n\n            <div class=\"fl-image-card-image-wrapper fl-image-card-image-wrapper-default\">\n                <img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\"\n                     src=\"https://supreme.findlaw.com/static/c/images\/images\/w_1200,c_limit,dpr_auto\/f_auto,q_auto:eco\/v1752070051\/ability-legal\/wp-prod\/content-editorial-images-supreme-court-justices-2020-supreme-court-building\/content-editorial-images-supreme-court-justices-2020-supreme-court-building.jpg?_i=AA\"\n                     alt=\"\"\n                ><\/img>\n                                    <span class=\"fl-eyebrow fl-image-card-eyebrow\">U.S. Supreme Court<\/span>\n                                            <\/div>\n                <\/a>\n\n        <div class=\"fl-image-card-content fl-flex-basis-100\">\n                    <h2>More On SCOTUS<\/h2>\n<p>Learn about the nation&#8217;s highest court and its most famous decisions.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/\" target=\"_self\">Read more &gt;<\/a><\/p>\n\n            <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n\n<div class=\"email-subscription fl-mb30\">\n    <div class=\"email-subscription-header\">\n        <div class=\"email-subscription-header-content\">\n            <h3 class=\"fl-callout-sm fl-no-margin\">Stay Up-to-Date With How the Law Affects Your Life<\/h3>\n        <\/div>\n        <div class=\"email-subscription-header-image fl-flex fl-items-end\">\n            <img decoding=\"async\"\n                src=\"https://supreme.findlaw.com/static/c/images\/images\/w_1200,c_limit,dpr_auto\/f_auto,q_auto:eco\/v1737476907\/Image-subscribeModule_zjhmpv\/Image-subscribeModule_zjhmpv.png?_i=AA\"\n                alt=\"\"\n                loading=\"lazy\"\n            \/>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"email-subscription-content fl-flex fl-flex-wrap\">\n        <div class=\"email-subscription-content-text fl-mb25\">\n            <h4 class=\"fl-no-margin\">Enter your email address to subscribe:<\/h4>\n        <\/div>\n\n        <form class=\"email-subscription-content-form\">\n            <input type=\"hidden\" name=\"distributionList\" value=\"lp\" \/>\n            <label for=\"email-subscription-content-form-group-input\" class=\"fl-text-sm-bold\">Email (Required)<\/label>\n            <div class=\"email-subscription-content-form-group\">\n                <input id=\"email-subscription-content-form-group-input\" name=\"email\" autocomplete=\"email\"\/>\n                <button type=\"submit\" aria-label=\"Submit\">\n                    <i class=\"fa fa-angle-right\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n                <\/button>\n            <\/div>\n            <p class=\"email-subscription-content-form-success subscribe-success-message fl-text-sm-bold\" aria-hidden=\"true\" role=\"status\">Thank you for subscribing!<\/p>\n            <p class=\"email-subscription-content-form-error subscribe-error-message fl-text-sm-bold\" role=\"alert\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/p>\n\n            <div id=\"email-subscription-content-form-recaptcha\" class=\"email-subscription-content-form-recaptcha subscribe-recaptcha\"\n                data-sitekey=\"0x4AAAAAAABGBEkK9kEeKxO-\"><\/div>\n        <\/form>\n\n        <div class=\"email-subscription-content-footer fl-text-sm\">\n            <p><a href=\"https:\/\/newsletters.findlaw.com\" rel=\"noopener\">Learn more about FindLaw\u2019s newsletters<\/a>, including our terms of use and privacy policy.<\/p>\n\n        <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>\n<div class=\"general-list\">\n    <h3>Helpful Links<\/h3>\n    <ul class=\"fl-list fl-no-margin\">\n                                    <li class=\"fl-list-item fl-flex\">\n                    <i class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n                    <a class=\"fl-list-item-link\" href=\"https:\/\/constitution.findlaw.com\" rel=\"noopener\">\n                        U.S. Constitution\n                    <\/a>\n                <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-item fl-flex\">\n                    <i class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n                    <a class=\"fl-list-item-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/litigation\/legal-system\/us-federal-court-system.html\" rel=\"noopener\">\n                        U.S. Federal Court System\n                    <\/a>\n                <\/li>\n                                                <li class=\"fl-list-item fl-flex\">\n                    <i class=\"fa fa-angle-right medium\" aria-hidden=\"true\"><\/i>\n                    <a class=\"fl-list-item-link\" href=\"https:\/\/www.findlaw.com\/legal\/law-students.html\" rel=\"noopener\">\n                        Law Students\n                    <\/a>\n                <\/li>\n                        <\/ul>\n<\/div>\n\n    <div class=\"popularDirectory\">\n        <div class=\"general-popular-directory \">\n            <div class=\"general-popular-directory-title\">\n                <h3>Popular Directory Searches<\/h3>\n            <\/div>\n            <ul>\n                                    <li><a href=\"https:\/\/lawyers.findlaw.com\/constitutional-law\/?fli=dcta\" rel=\"noopener\">Constitutional Law<\/a><\/li>\n                                    <li><a href=\"https:\/\/lawyers.findlaw.com\/civil-rights\/?fli=dcta\" rel=\"noopener\">Civil Rights<\/a><\/li>\n                                    <li><a href=\"https:\/\/lawyers.findlaw.com\/discrimination\/?fli=dcta\" rel=\"noopener\">Discrimination<\/a><\/li>\n                            <\/ul>\n        <\/div>\n    <\/div>\n\n\n    <\/div>\n<\/div>","protected":false},"parent":54751,"menu_order":0,"template":"app\/Http\/Controllers\/Templates\/ArticlePageController.php","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_stopmodifiedupdate":false,"_modified_date":"","_cloudinary_featured_overwrite":false},"class_list":["post-54796","supreme","type-supreme","status-publish","hentry"],"acf":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/legal-api\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/supreme\/54796","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/legal-api\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/supreme"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/legal-api\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/supreme"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/legal-api\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/supreme\/54751"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/supreme.findlaw.com\/legal-api\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=54796"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}